Unit 1: Protestant Reformation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
01 - Erasmus and Christian Humanism 02 - Religion on the Eve of Reformation 03 - Martin Luther 04 - Politics in the German Reformation 05 - The Zwinglian Reformation 06 - Calvin and Calvinims 07 - The Reformation in England 08 - Anabaptists 09 - Catholic Reformation 10 - PODCASTS 11 - FULL YOUTUBE VIDEOS |
01 - Erasmus and Christian Humanism
Erasmus and Christian Humanism
The Protestant Reformation is the name that is used for the reform movement that divided the western Church into Catholic and Protestant groups. Several developments set the stage for religious change. During the second half of the fifteenth century, the new classical learning that was part of Italian Renaissance humanism spread to northern Europe. A movement called Christian humanism (or Northern Renaissance humanism) developed. Christian humanists believed in the ability of human beings to reason and improve themselves. One of their major goals was the reform of the Catholic
Church. Humanists believed that in order to change the Church and society, they needed to change individuals first. They thought that if people read the classics and the works of Christianity, they would become more pious. This would bring about a reform of the Church and society. The best known of the Christian humanists was Desiderius Erasmus. He called his view of religion “the philosophy of Christ.” He believed that Christianity should show people how to live good lives. To reform the Church, Erasmus wanted to spread the philosophy of Christ and provide education in the works of Christianity. He also criticized the abuses of the Catholic Church. He did not wish to break away from the Church, however. He sought reform within the Catholic Church. But his ideas prepared the way for the Reformation.
The Protestant Reformation is the name that is used for the reform movement that divided the western Church into Catholic and Protestant groups. Several developments set the stage for religious change. During the second half of the fifteenth century, the new classical learning that was part of Italian Renaissance humanism spread to northern Europe. A movement called Christian humanism (or Northern Renaissance humanism) developed. Christian humanists believed in the ability of human beings to reason and improve themselves. One of their major goals was the reform of the Catholic
Church. Humanists believed that in order to change the Church and society, they needed to change individuals first. They thought that if people read the classics and the works of Christianity, they would become more pious. This would bring about a reform of the Church and society. The best known of the Christian humanists was Desiderius Erasmus. He called his view of religion “the philosophy of Christ.” He believed that Christianity should show people how to live good lives. To reform the Church, Erasmus wanted to spread the philosophy of Christ and provide education in the works of Christianity. He also criticized the abuses of the Catholic Church. He did not wish to break away from the Church, however. He sought reform within the Catholic Church. But his ideas prepared the way for the Reformation.
02 - Religion on the Eve of the Reformation
Religion on the Eve of the Reformation
Erasmus and others were calling for reform because of the corruption of the Catholic Church. Between 1450 and 1520, the popes were more concerned with Italian politics and worldly interests than with spiritual matters. Pope Julius II personally led armies against his enemies. This disgusted Christians because the pope was supposed to be a spiritual, not a military, leader. Many church officials were concerned with money and used their church offices to get wealthy. Parish priests were often ignorant of their spiritual duties. People wanted a meaningful religion and assurance of salvation (acceptance into Heaven), but many priests were unable to teach them. Collections of relics became popular as a means to salvation. According to Church practice at that time, a person could gain an indulgence (release from all or part of the punishment for sins) through relics. The church also sold indulgences in the form of certificates. This practice, in particular, upset many of the reformers.
Erasmus and others were calling for reform because of the corruption of the Catholic Church. Between 1450 and 1520, the popes were more concerned with Italian politics and worldly interests than with spiritual matters. Pope Julius II personally led armies against his enemies. This disgusted Christians because the pope was supposed to be a spiritual, not a military, leader. Many church officials were concerned with money and used their church offices to get wealthy. Parish priests were often ignorant of their spiritual duties. People wanted a meaningful religion and assurance of salvation (acceptance into Heaven), but many priests were unable to teach them. Collections of relics became popular as a means to salvation. According to Church practice at that time, a person could gain an indulgence (release from all or part of the punishment for sins) through relics. The church also sold indulgences in the form of certificates. This practice, in particular, upset many of the reformers.
03 - Martin Luther
Martin Luther
Martin Luther was a monk and a professor at the University of Wittenberg in Germany. Through his study of the Bible, Luther found an answer to a problem that had bothered him since he became a monk. This problem was how to be certain of salvation. Catholic teachings had stressed that both faith and good works were needed to gain salvation. Luther believed that people could never do enough good works to be saved. He came to believe that people are not saved through their good works but through their faith in God. If a person has faith in God, God makes that person just, or worthy of salvation. God grants salvation because he is merciful, not because of a person’s good works. This idea is called justification (being made right with God) by faith alone. It became the chief teaching of the Protestant Reformation. Because Luther had found the answer to his problem by studying the Bible, the Bible became the only source of religious truth for Luther and all other Protestants. Luther did not see himself as a rebel, but the selling of indulgences upset him. He believed that people were actually harming their chances for salvation by buying indulgences. On October 31, 1517, Luther sent a list of Ninety-Five Theses to his church superiors. The theses (statements) were an attack on the selling of indulgences. Thousands of copies of the Ninety-Five Theses were printed and spread to all parts of Germany. By 1520, Luther was ready to break away from the Catholic Church. He asked the German princes to establish a reformed German church. Luther also attacked the Church’s system of seven sacraments. He kept only two sacraments, baptism and the Eucharist (Communion). Luther also thought that the clergy should marry. This went against the Catholic belief that the clergy should remain celibate (unmarried). The Catholic Church excommunicated Luther in 1521. The newly elected emperor, Charles V, thought he could convince Luther to change his ideas. He summoned Luther to appear before the imperial diet (legislative assembly) of the Holy Roman Empire. But Luther refused to change his mind. By the Edict of Worms, Luther was made an outlaw in the empire. His works were supposed to be burned, and Luther was supposed to be captured and brought to the emperor. But Frederick of Saxony, Luther’s ruler, sent Luther into hiding. When Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522, Frederick protected him. During the next few years, Luther’s religious movement became a revolution. Many of the German rulers supported Luther and formed state churches. Luther set up new religious services to replace the Catholic mass. These services consisted of Bible readings, preaching of the word of God, and songs. These new churches became known as Lutheran churches, and Luther’s doctrine became known as Lutheranism. Lutheranism was the first Protestant faith.
Martin Luther was a monk and a professor at the University of Wittenberg in Germany. Through his study of the Bible, Luther found an answer to a problem that had bothered him since he became a monk. This problem was how to be certain of salvation. Catholic teachings had stressed that both faith and good works were needed to gain salvation. Luther believed that people could never do enough good works to be saved. He came to believe that people are not saved through their good works but through their faith in God. If a person has faith in God, God makes that person just, or worthy of salvation. God grants salvation because he is merciful, not because of a person’s good works. This idea is called justification (being made right with God) by faith alone. It became the chief teaching of the Protestant Reformation. Because Luther had found the answer to his problem by studying the Bible, the Bible became the only source of religious truth for Luther and all other Protestants. Luther did not see himself as a rebel, but the selling of indulgences upset him. He believed that people were actually harming their chances for salvation by buying indulgences. On October 31, 1517, Luther sent a list of Ninety-Five Theses to his church superiors. The theses (statements) were an attack on the selling of indulgences. Thousands of copies of the Ninety-Five Theses were printed and spread to all parts of Germany. By 1520, Luther was ready to break away from the Catholic Church. He asked the German princes to establish a reformed German church. Luther also attacked the Church’s system of seven sacraments. He kept only two sacraments, baptism and the Eucharist (Communion). Luther also thought that the clergy should marry. This went against the Catholic belief that the clergy should remain celibate (unmarried). The Catholic Church excommunicated Luther in 1521. The newly elected emperor, Charles V, thought he could convince Luther to change his ideas. He summoned Luther to appear before the imperial diet (legislative assembly) of the Holy Roman Empire. But Luther refused to change his mind. By the Edict of Worms, Luther was made an outlaw in the empire. His works were supposed to be burned, and Luther was supposed to be captured and brought to the emperor. But Frederick of Saxony, Luther’s ruler, sent Luther into hiding. When Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522, Frederick protected him. During the next few years, Luther’s religious movement became a revolution. Many of the German rulers supported Luther and formed state churches. Luther set up new religious services to replace the Catholic mass. These services consisted of Bible readings, preaching of the word of God, and songs. These new churches became known as Lutheran churches, and Luther’s doctrine became known as Lutheranism. Lutheranism was the first Protestant faith.
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04 - Politics in the German Reformation
Politics in the German Reformation
Charles V, the Holy Roman emperor, was also Charles I, the king of Spain. He ruled an immense empire consisting of Spain, the Austrian lands, Bohemia, Hungary, the Low Countries, the duchy of Milan, the kingdom of Naples, and Spanish territories in the New World (look at the map to your left). He wanted to keep this empire under the control of his dynasty, the Hapsburgs. He hoped to preserve his empire by keeping it Catholic. However, he had other problems at the same time. His chief political concern was his rivalry with the king of France, Francis I. Their conflicts led to a series of wars that lasted 20 years. Charles also had problems with the pope, Clement VII, who sided with the French king. At the same time, the invasion of the Ottoman Turks forced Charles to send troops to the eastern part of his empire. Many of the princes of the German states supported Luther as a way to assert their own authority over the authority of Charles V. By the time Charles V was able to bring military forces to Germany, the Lutheran princes were well organized. Charles was unable to defeat them and was forced to seek peace. An end to religious warfare in Germany came in 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg. This agreement formally accepted the division of Christianity in Germany. The German states could now choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism. Lutheran states were given the same legal rights as Catholic states. The right of each German ruler to determine the religion of his subjects was recognized, but not the right of the subjects to choose their own religion.
Charles V, the Holy Roman emperor, was also Charles I, the king of Spain. He ruled an immense empire consisting of Spain, the Austrian lands, Bohemia, Hungary, the Low Countries, the duchy of Milan, the kingdom of Naples, and Spanish territories in the New World (look at the map to your left). He wanted to keep this empire under the control of his dynasty, the Hapsburgs. He hoped to preserve his empire by keeping it Catholic. However, he had other problems at the same time. His chief political concern was his rivalry with the king of France, Francis I. Their conflicts led to a series of wars that lasted 20 years. Charles also had problems with the pope, Clement VII, who sided with the French king. At the same time, the invasion of the Ottoman Turks forced Charles to send troops to the eastern part of his empire. Many of the princes of the German states supported Luther as a way to assert their own authority over the authority of Charles V. By the time Charles V was able to bring military forces to Germany, the Lutheran princes were well organized. Charles was unable to defeat them and was forced to seek peace. An end to religious warfare in Germany came in 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg. This agreement formally accepted the division of Christianity in Germany. The German states could now choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism. Lutheran states were given the same legal rights as Catholic states. The right of each German ruler to determine the religion of his subjects was recognized, but not the right of the subjects to choose their own religion.
05 - The Zwinglian Reformation
The Zwinglian Reformation
Even before the Peace of Augsburg, other Protestant groups had developed. One of these new groups was in Switzerland. Ulrich Zwingli, a priest in Zürich led this movement. Due to his influence, the council of Zürich began to make religious reforms. All paintings, decorations, and relics were removed from the churches. A new church service replaced the Catholic mass. This service consisted of scripture reading, prayer, and sermons. In October 1531, war broke out in Switzerland between the Protestant and Catholic states. Zwingli was killed. The leadership of Protestantism in Switzerland passed to John Calvin.
Even before the Peace of Augsburg, other Protestant groups had developed. One of these new groups was in Switzerland. Ulrich Zwingli, a priest in Zürich led this movement. Due to his influence, the council of Zürich began to make religious reforms. All paintings, decorations, and relics were removed from the churches. A new church service replaced the Catholic mass. This service consisted of scripture reading, prayer, and sermons. In October 1531, war broke out in Switzerland between the Protestant and Catholic states. Zwingli was killed. The leadership of Protestantism in Switzerland passed to John Calvin.
06 - Calvin and Calvinism
Calvin and Calvinism
John Calvin as born and educated in France. After he converted to Protestantism, he was forced to flee to Switzerland because France was still Catholic. In 1536, he published the Institutes of the Christian Religion, a summary of Protestant doctrines. This book made Calvin one of the new leaders of Protestantism. In many ways, Calvin’s beliefs were similar to Luther’s. Like Luther, he believed in the doctrine of justification by faith alone. But Calvin also emphasized the all-powerful nature of God. This caused him to believe in another doctrine, predestination. Predestination is the belief that God has determined in advance (predestined) who will be saved and who will be damned. In 1536, Calvin began working to reform the city of Geneva. He created a church government that used both clergy and laity. A court was set up to oversee the moral life and religious doctrines of the people of Geneva. This court was called the Consistory. It had the right to punish people for crimes, which included dancing, drunkenness, swearing, and playing cards. Geneva became a powerful center of Protestantism. Missionaries trained in Geneva were sent to all parts of Europe. By the mid-sixteenth century, Calvinism had replaced Lutheranism as the most important form of Protestantism.
John Calvin as born and educated in France. After he converted to Protestantism, he was forced to flee to Switzerland because France was still Catholic. In 1536, he published the Institutes of the Christian Religion, a summary of Protestant doctrines. This book made Calvin one of the new leaders of Protestantism. In many ways, Calvin’s beliefs were similar to Luther’s. Like Luther, he believed in the doctrine of justification by faith alone. But Calvin also emphasized the all-powerful nature of God. This caused him to believe in another doctrine, predestination. Predestination is the belief that God has determined in advance (predestined) who will be saved and who will be damned. In 1536, Calvin began working to reform the city of Geneva. He created a church government that used both clergy and laity. A court was set up to oversee the moral life and religious doctrines of the people of Geneva. This court was called the Consistory. It had the right to punish people for crimes, which included dancing, drunkenness, swearing, and playing cards. Geneva became a powerful center of Protestantism. Missionaries trained in Geneva were sent to all parts of Europe. By the mid-sixteenth century, Calvinism had replaced Lutheranism as the most important form of Protestantism.
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07 - Reformation in England
The Reformation in England
The Reformation in England had its beginnings in politics, not religion. King Henry VIII wanted to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, because she had not been able to have a son. Because Henry needed a male heir, he wanted to marry Anne Boleyn. Henry asked the pope to annul (declare invalid) his marriage to Catherine, but the pope refused. Henry then asked the church courts in England for the annulment. In 1533, Thomas Cranmer, the archbishop of Canterbury, granted the annulment, and Henry married Anne Boleyn. The next year, Henry asked Parliament to separate the Church in England from the pope in Rome. The Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy of 1534. This act made the king the head of the Church of England. Henry used his new powers to close the monasteries and sell their land and possessions. This put more money in his treasury. It also created new supporters for the king, because the people who had bought the monks’ land did not want the Catholic Church to be in power again. Despite these changes, Henry’s religious beliefs were similar to those of the Catholic Church. When Henry died in 1547, his son, Edward VI, took the throne. He was only nine years old and sickly. During Edward’s reign, church officials moved the Church of England (also called the Anglican Church) in a Protestant direction. Parliament gave the clergy the right to marry and created a new Protestant church service. Many people opposed these changes. When Edward VI died in 1553, Mary, Henry’s daughter by Catherine of Aragon, took the throne. She was a Catholic and wanted to restore England to Roman Catholicism. The way she went about it had the opposite effect, however. She had more than three hundred Protestants burned as heretics, which gave her the nickname “Bloody Mary.” As a result, England was even more Protestant by the end of her reign than it had been at the beginning.
The Reformation in England had its beginnings in politics, not religion. King Henry VIII wanted to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, because she had not been able to have a son. Because Henry needed a male heir, he wanted to marry Anne Boleyn. Henry asked the pope to annul (declare invalid) his marriage to Catherine, but the pope refused. Henry then asked the church courts in England for the annulment. In 1533, Thomas Cranmer, the archbishop of Canterbury, granted the annulment, and Henry married Anne Boleyn. The next year, Henry asked Parliament to separate the Church in England from the pope in Rome. The Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy of 1534. This act made the king the head of the Church of England. Henry used his new powers to close the monasteries and sell their land and possessions. This put more money in his treasury. It also created new supporters for the king, because the people who had bought the monks’ land did not want the Catholic Church to be in power again. Despite these changes, Henry’s religious beliefs were similar to those of the Catholic Church. When Henry died in 1547, his son, Edward VI, took the throne. He was only nine years old and sickly. During Edward’s reign, church officials moved the Church of England (also called the Anglican Church) in a Protestant direction. Parliament gave the clergy the right to marry and created a new Protestant church service. Many people opposed these changes. When Edward VI died in 1553, Mary, Henry’s daughter by Catherine of Aragon, took the throne. She was a Catholic and wanted to restore England to Roman Catholicism. The way she went about it had the opposite effect, however. She had more than three hundred Protestants burned as heretics, which gave her the nickname “Bloody Mary.” As a result, England was even more Protestant by the end of her reign than it had been at the beginning.
08 - The Anabaptists
The Anabaptists
Many of the Protestant reformers allowed the state (government) to play an important role in church affairs. Some people were against the state having this kind of power. These people were called the Anabaptists. According to the Anabaptists the true Christian church was a voluntary community of adult believers. Believers were first reborn spiritually and then baptized. This belief in adult baptism separated Anabaptists from Catholics and also other Protestants who baptized infants. Anabaptists based many of their beliefs and practices on the accounts of the early Christian church in the New Testament. They believed that all Christians were equal. Each Anabaptist church chose its own minister (spiritual leader). Because all Christians were considered priests, any member of the community was eligible to be a minister. Most Anabaptists believed in the complete separation of church and state. They thought that government should be kept out of religion. They even thought that government should not have any authority over real Christians. Anabaptists refused to hold political office or bear arms. Their political and religious beliefs caused the Anabaptists to be regarded as dangerous radicals. The only thing that most Protestants and Catholics could agree on was the need to persecute the Anabaptists.
Many of the Protestant reformers allowed the state (government) to play an important role in church affairs. Some people were against the state having this kind of power. These people were called the Anabaptists. According to the Anabaptists the true Christian church was a voluntary community of adult believers. Believers were first reborn spiritually and then baptized. This belief in adult baptism separated Anabaptists from Catholics and also other Protestants who baptized infants. Anabaptists based many of their beliefs and practices on the accounts of the early Christian church in the New Testament. They believed that all Christians were equal. Each Anabaptist church chose its own minister (spiritual leader). Because all Christians were considered priests, any member of the community was eligible to be a minister. Most Anabaptists believed in the complete separation of church and state. They thought that government should be kept out of religion. They even thought that government should not have any authority over real Christians. Anabaptists refused to hold political office or bear arms. Their political and religious beliefs caused the Anabaptists to be regarded as dangerous radicals. The only thing that most Protestants and Catholics could agree on was the need to persecute the Anabaptists.
09 - Catholic Reformation (AKA - Counter Reformation)
The Catholic Reformation
By the mid-sixteenth century, Protestantism was well established in many parts of Europe. The situation in Europe did not look good for the Catholic Church. However, the Catholic Church had its own reformation in the sixteenth century that gave it new strength. Three factors brought about this Catholic Reformation. These three factors were the Jesuits, reform of the papacy, and the Council of Trent. Jesuits were also known as the Society of Jesus. Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish nobleman, founded the Society. All Jesuits took a vow of absolute obedience to the pope. Jesuits used education to spread their message. Jesuit missionaries were very successful in restoring Catholicism to parts of Germany and Eastern Europe. They also spread it to other parts of the world. Pope Paul III saw the need for changes in the Catholic Church and appointed a Reform Commission in 1537. The commission blamed the Church’s problems on the corruption of the popes. Renaissance popes had been involved in questionable financial dealings and in Italian political and military affairs. In 1545, Pope Paul III began the Council of Trent. It was made up of Church leaders and theologians. The Council met off and on for 18 years. It reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings. According to the Council, both faith and good works were necessary for salvation. The seven sacraments, the Catholic view of the Eucharist, and celibacy were all upheld. However, the selling of indulgences was
forbidden.
By the mid-sixteenth century, Protestantism was well established in many parts of Europe. The situation in Europe did not look good for the Catholic Church. However, the Catholic Church had its own reformation in the sixteenth century that gave it new strength. Three factors brought about this Catholic Reformation. These three factors were the Jesuits, reform of the papacy, and the Council of Trent. Jesuits were also known as the Society of Jesus. Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish nobleman, founded the Society. All Jesuits took a vow of absolute obedience to the pope. Jesuits used education to spread their message. Jesuit missionaries were very successful in restoring Catholicism to parts of Germany and Eastern Europe. They also spread it to other parts of the world. Pope Paul III saw the need for changes in the Catholic Church and appointed a Reform Commission in 1537. The commission blamed the Church’s problems on the corruption of the popes. Renaissance popes had been involved in questionable financial dealings and in Italian political and military affairs. In 1545, Pope Paul III began the Council of Trent. It was made up of Church leaders and theologians. The Council met off and on for 18 years. It reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings. According to the Council, both faith and good works were necessary for salvation. The seven sacraments, the Catholic view of the Eucharist, and celibacy were all upheld. However, the selling of indulgences was
forbidden.
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Martin Luther : Reluctant Revolutionary